Easy2Siksha.com
   2024
/  
  VI
 : 3   :100
:     ,            
           

1.             
          
2.              β- 
  ,         

3.        -     

4.()    ?         

(b) X  Y                
  :
5            :
Easy2Siksha.com
Y
60
90
110
125
150
170
180
200
220
230
X
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550

5.          
6. ()     :


      X₂           

()     -      
–D
7.        ? -   
      
8.()          
(b)   ,     ?
Easy2Siksha.com
   2024
/  
  VI
 : 3   :100
:     ,            
           

1.             
          
:󷄧󷄫      
                 ,
           :
             
             
          
󹶆󹶚󹶈󹶉 :    
 ,            , 
            
  :          ,   
  ,     :
󰇛󰇜
Easy2Siksha.com
    : "     "
       :

          
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔      :          
    
         :
  
      
 
  ( ,  )
             ,  
󹵍󹵉󹵎󹵏󹵐: 
       
               :


10
100
12
95
15
80
20
60
   : "         ?"
   
    :

        :

Easy2Siksha.com
    'u'         
    :


 
a  b               
󷄧󼿒  (  )
 


 (-)

 + 
   
    
 ()
 ( )


 
  
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔 :
        
         
󷄧󷄬       
          
 ,               
 ,    ,         
   (u)  
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼   ?
    :
 󰇛󰇜
Easy2Siksha.com
   ,      -      
?        :


  


       
   :

 u ( )      
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔          
󷄧󷄭    (  )
               
    
󷄧󷄫   
    
             
:    :


  

  
         
Easy2Siksha.com
           
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔 :   =     
󷄧󷄬 
          
:
        
 
 
  
         ,        
      
󷄧󷄭  
-     ,       
:  :
    :

      u   
       
󷄧󷄮  
       
Easy2Siksha.com
     :



             
  
      
5󰊯 
        :

 
 

      
       ,       
        
󷄧󷄱    
        :
 


  
            
    
Easy2Siksha.com
󷄧󷄲  
    ,  -  
:
  
 
 
      
󷄧󷄮    
   ,    
  :

        
    :


 
 
     
5󰊯 
        ,  ,  ,   ,
  ,          
               
     ,       
  
Easy2Siksha.com
2.              β- 
  ,         
:󷋇󷋈󷋉󷋊󷋋󷋌   
      :
:
=   (      )
=   ()
=  (X = 0   Y  )
=  (X      Y  )
=   (    )
         
󷊨󷊩  
     ()         () 
  ()      
Residual
  :
󰇛
󰇜
              
󷙣󷙤󷙥β-  
 1:    (RSS)   
 󰇛
󰇜
 2: β₀  β₁    
 RSS        ,         (-
)


󰇛
󰇜
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


󰇛
󰇜
 3:    
  :


  :



 4:      
 :


:
󰇛
󰇜󰇛
󰇜
󰇛
󰇜
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼
():     X        Y     
(): X = 0   Y   
                 
 
󷊨󷊩     
      ,      :
1. :
o X  Y    
o :  X =   , Y =  ,      
 
2.   :
o  ()    
o    (-   )
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3.  ( ):
o    X       
o  X     ,     
4.   :
o       ,        
 
5.    :
o   ,        ,  
      
6. :
o   X      
o     ,      
󷙣󷙤󷙥  
       (X)    (Y)        
10     
         
  ,              5  
 
  ,         0    ,  20  
    

󽆪󽆫󽆬
              ,   
       , ,      
 

3.        -     

:󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼-  (   )
1.    
 ,           
              :
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
      :
Y     
X  ()  
β ()    (      )
ε ()   
  :
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  =   +  
2. -   
          "  " 
(1) 
    :

           (β      )
(2)   
󰇛󰇜
,               
(3)   ()
󰇛󰇜
     
Easy2Siksha.com
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔       ""  
(4)   
  :
󰇛
󰇜 󰇛 󰇜
       
(5) X   
    
              
3. -   
 :
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔- :      , β    
()      ()
4.     ?
         :
󷄧󼿒
 Y    
OLS :
󰆹
󰇛
󰆒
󰇜

󰆒
 Y   
Easy2Siksha.com
󷄧󼿒
󰇛
󰆹
󰇜
, OLS   
󷄧󼿒
""          
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔            
5. -    (--)
        
 1:   
OLS :
󰆹
󰇛
󰆒
󰇜

󰆒
 :

:
󰆹
󰇛
󰆒
󰇜

󰆒
󰇛󰇜
󰇛
󰆒
󰇜

󰆒
󰇛
󰆒
󰇜

󰆒
󰇛
󰆒
󰇜

󰆒
 2:  
Easy2Siksha.com
 :
󰇛
󰆹
󰇜 󰇟󰇛
󰆒
󰇜

󰆒
󰇠
󰇛
󰆒
󰇜

󰆒
󰇛󰇜
:
󰇛󰇜
:
󰇛
󰆹
󰇜
󷄧󼿒 
 3:    
     :
󰆹
󰇛
󰆒
󰇜

󰆒
:
󰇛
󰆹
󰇜 󰇟󰇛
󰆒
󰇜

󰆒
󰇠
     :
󰇛󰇜 󰇛󰇜
󰆒
:
󰇛
󰆹
󰇜 󰇛
󰆒
󰇜

󰆒
󰇛󰇜󰇛
󰆒
󰇜

:
󰇛󰇜
Easy2Siksha.com
 :
󰇛
󰆹
󰇜
󰇛
󰆒
󰇜

 4:        
      :

 C  
  :
󰇛
󰇜 󰇛󰇜 
β     :

         :

 5:    
   :
󰇛
󰇜 󰇛󰇜
󰆒
:
󰇛󰇜
:
󰇛
󰇜
󰆒
Easy2Siksha.com
 6: C  OLS     
  :

 :
󰇛
󰆒
󰇜

󰆒
 :
󰇛
󰆒
󰇜

󰆒
:

 7:  
:
󰇛
󰇜
󰇟󰇛
󰆒
󰇜

󰆒
󰇠󰇟󰇛
󰆒
󰇜

󰆒
󰇠
:
󰇟󰇛
󰆒
󰇜

󰆒
󰇠
:
󰇛
󰇜 󰇛
󰆹
󰇜
󰆒
 8:     
:
Easy2Siksha.com
󰆒
( -)
:
󰇛
󰇜 󰇛
󰆹
󰇜
 :
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔       OLS     
  ( )
  :
  
  
    
:
OLS is the BLUE estimator
6.  
           :
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔     
       
 -   :
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  ()    ,
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔       
    ,      
Easy2Siksha.com
7.     
         :
󽆱        
  0   
     :
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔    
         :
-
-
 
8. -   
       :
      
     
         
:
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔     
4.()    ?         

:4()    ?
   
                 
       ,         
                 
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               ( 
)  
       :
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔     ?
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔                ?
  (R²)    

  (R²)               
      
  :
           
  
         
 R² = 0.90 →    90%    
 R² = 0.50 →  50%    
 R² = 0.10 →   10%    
      
  (  )
      ,       
:        -  :
 

 

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  
                
    ,    
:
Explained Variation
Total Variation
:
       
    
 
:
R² = 0    
R² = 1 
R² = 0.75 75%     
 
               R² = 0.80 
  :
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔      80%       
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔20%   (, ,  )  
 
     :
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󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔            
:             :
 
  

              : 
  ,       
      ,     
   ( R²)

 R², R²              
   :
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔            ?
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔        ?
 
 R²,           
      
  :
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔          
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔      
   ?
            :
 1:   R² = 0.70
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 2:   +   = 0.71
         
                 
    
  
    
     
  ( )
  :
 
  
                
      
          
 :
:
  
² = 0.65  ² = 0.64
 :
:
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

  
   
R² = 0.68  R² = 0.63
:
   (0.65 → 0.68)
   (0.64 → 0.63)
:
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔          
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔    
   
       
1.  
R²:
            
 R²:
               
2.     
R²:
        
 R²:
    
3.     
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R²:
       
 R²:
    
4.  
R²:
           
 R²:
      
5.    
R²:
   
 R²:
      
 

  (R²)


%   
  

0  1
   1    
    
  
  
 
  

 


 


 :     
      :
  
  
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 
      
  
          
:
 : 90/100 ( )  : 85/100 (  )
   A   -    B   
 :
R² =  
 R² =  
    
    :
 
   
   
    :
 
  
 
  
  (R²)              
              
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,           ,     
,            ,    
 (Adjusted R²)    ,        
  
(b) X  Y                
  :
5            :
Y
60
90
110
125
150
170
180
200
220
230
X
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
:󷋇󷋈󷋉󷋊󷋋󷋌 1:    
X
Y
100
60
150
90
200
110
250
125
300
150
350
170
400
180
450
200
500
220
550
230
  n = 10 
󷊨󷊩 2:    








󷙣󷙤󷙥 3: β₁ ()   
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:
󰇛
󰇜󰇛
󰇜
󰇛
󰇜
  :

󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼 4: β₀ ()   
󰇛󰇜󰇛󰇜 
 ,     :

󷊨󷊩 5: R²   
:
󰇛
󰇜
󰇛
󰇜
  :

      Y    98%     ,     
󷙣󷙤󷙥 6:      
β₁ ()  :
:
:
 :
󰇛
󰇜
  , -    (5%      ,   df = 8  
 2.306 )
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 , β₁   
β₀ ()  :
 ,    ,        
 
󽆪󽆫󽆬
  :

 (0.38)   : X      , Y  0.38    
 (30.75)   :  X = 0,   Y 30.75
            

  5%      
󷊨󷊩
   X  Y           
  ,     X, Y      0.98    , 
Y        ,        

5.          
:󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼     
                  
     
      
    :      
      
    -    ()  
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔     (       )   
      
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:
                 
 :
    ( )
    ()
󽁔󽁕󽁖   
       ,      
       -     
󷄧󷄫  
 ,   ( )          
        
     :
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔    
   :
  
  
:              
󷄧󷄬 -  -
            , : " 
       ?"
      :
-    
-    
    :
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          
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔      
󷄧󷄭   (  )
 (  )      :
OLS     (BLUE)  (    )
   :
    
     
:
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔      
     
󷄧󷄮  
       :
        
          
: -        ,    
  
5󰊯 
 :
   
        ,         
           
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󷄧󼿒    
                  
       
󷄧󷄫   
         
 :
 
 
 
:        : log()  log()   
   :
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔             
          
󷄧󷄬   ()
        ,     -   
:
-   
-   
    
:
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔     
 WLS     
󷄧󷄭     
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         :
-  
(        )
             
:
 -
 -,       
     
󷄧󷄮    
-         
:      ,       
           
:
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔     
        
5󰊯     
     :
:    
:     -   
         
󷄧󷄱  
Easy2Siksha.com
   :         
?        
      ,        
󷘹󷘴󷘵󷘶󷘷󷘸 (    )
                 
               
 ,     
      ,   , 
    ,        
     ,          
   
                 
 (    ),      , -
    ,         ,  
           , 
            
6. ()     :


      X₂           

:󷋇󷋈󷋉󷋊󷋋󷋌 
      :


:
=  


=  
Easy2Siksha.com
= 
=  
󷊨󷊩: 
            :

                   
?
:

               
 ()         ,    

󷙣󷙤󷙥   
       :
Cov󰇛
󰇜
Var󰇛
󰇜
  ,        
 :
   ,  ,     
Cov󰇛
󰇜
   ,            

󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼 
       (X1)    (Y)       
        (X2)     
            ,     
         
           ( ),    
             
Easy2Siksha.com
                 

    
󷊨󷊩  
 ,             :
󰇟

󰇠
       
󷙣󷙤󷙥 
1.  :         
2.   :          ( 
,        ),        
   
3.   R²:-     ""  ,   
 
󽆪󽆫󽆬
      :

Cov󰇛
󰇜
Var󰇛
󰇜
                 
 ()             
    :              
         ,       
 
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()     -      
:1.      
󷊆󷊇 
  ( -        )     
  :
               ,  
  
  :   X₁   X₂, X₃, X₄      ,      
          
󼩏󼩐󼩑     (--)
       :
           :
 1:    (  X₁)
 2:      :

 3:     (R²)   
 4:      
󹵍󹵉󹵎󹵏󹵐
  (1  ) → X₁  X₂  X₃       
 
         
   :
Easy2Siksha.com
                
󹵙󹵚󹵛󹵜 (   )
         (Y)     :
 (X₁)
 (X₂)
 (X₃)
          
          (regression)    R² = 0.95 
 ,                 
       
󷄧󼿒  
    
          
  
󽆱
     (    )
  (“ R²”)
        
   ,           - -

2. -  
-            
           
      :
Easy2Siksha.com
 1 →      
 2 →     
 3 →    
 1:    
 ,           
          -     :
󰇡

󰇢
:
n =   
k =    
|R| =    

  χ² >  χ² →   
  χ² ≤  χ² →    
    :    ?
 2:   
  1       ,          

    :
 X  X₁   (   )
  
F-   :
󰇛󰇜
󰇛
󰇜󰇛
󰇜
Easy2Siksha.com

 F   X₁     
 F    X₁  
       
 3:   
 ,  -               :


 rᵢⱼ = Xi  Xj    

 t → Xi  Xj   
      
            
󹵍󹵉󹵎󹵏󹵐  
          
 :
           ?”     
 
- :
 1:       ?  2:       ?  3: 
  ?
3. :   -

 
- 
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 

 

 
3- 


χ², F, t 
    


    





4.   
       :
    
    
   
       
  -          
          
󽆤 
     -        
             
               
         

-          : 
χ² ,  F-,   t-,    ,  
       
                 
    ,        
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 –D
7.        ? -   
      
:󷋇󷋈󷋉󷋊󷋋󷋌  ?
  ,        ()      
                
        
: (  )        
  
:  -     ,        
  
:  ,           
 ,      
󷊨󷊩    ?
1.    :     ,   
   
2.   :       ,  -
 -    
3.   :  ,      
   
󷙣󷙤󷙥- 
- (DW)           
        
:
󰇛


󰇜

:
=   
=   
:
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:   
:  
:  
 :
            
 :    
 :   
 : 
:
         DW = 1.2      2   , 
       
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  
     ,        :
1.   
-        (,   ,   )
     
:           
2.   
    :   ,  


  -        
3.    ()
            ,
    
4. - 
-          
   ()          
5. -  
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     ,          
      
󽆪󽆫󽆬 
,    -        
-          ,   
  -     
  -         
    
󷊨󷊩
               ,
   OLS     -      
    ,  2        
      ,    , GLS   ,  
      
8.()          
(b)   ,     ?
:8(a)       
󷊆󷊇 :     
    ,          
   
  :
     ,     
       - 
     ,         
             
 
   :
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  :


:   ,  ,         
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔     
󺡜󺡝󺡞󺡟    
      ,         :
    ( )




 (   )
    
 
      
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼   
      
            
:


     -    
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  ,  :         ,  , 
    
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󷄧󹹯󹹰      
     :



       :





  :







     
      󷘹󷘴󷘵󷘶󷘷󷘸
:
󰇛󰇜



󷘹󷘴󷘵󷘶󷘷󷘸  
        :


    :
  X   
  Y
  
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔   
Easy2Siksha.com
󹲉󹲊󹲋󹲌󹲍   
  :
       
' 
'
      

󽇐   
        
    
    
 
󽁔󽁕󽁖
    (    )
     
     
󼩏󼩐󼩑   
     :
      ,          
:
   =      +     
     
8()          
      
Easy2Siksha.com
󷇓󷇔󷇕󷇖󷇗󷇘 :     ?
                -
  
:
     
   
   

   :
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔      ?
󹵍󹵉󹵎󹵏󹵐 :  
             
:
   :
   β =    β?
     :
-    
     
 
        :
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  
󷬭󷬮󷬯󷬰   ?
    0-1    
Easy2Siksha.com
:
󰇥
after reform
before reform
󼩺󼩻   
         :
󰇛󰇜
         
󹺔󹺒󹺓  
β₀ →    
β₁ →    
β₂ →      
β₃ →      
:
   (D=0):
   (D=1):
󰇛
󰇜󰇛
󰇜
󷘹󷘴󷘵󷘶󷘷󷘸     !
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼        
-       ,    :
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  
Easy2Siksha.com
  :
β₂ = 0 →  
β₃ = 0 →  
      
      
     
󽇐  
 
       
     
   
  
󷄧󼿒 
(a)              
  X   Y            
       ,         
  
(b)            ,    
                
                 
-        
             
       ,       